Soil Health and Composition Changes

Key Components of Soil: Overview of physical, chemical, and biological components that determine soil health.

Soil health is a critical component of the Earth's ecosystem, influencing agricultural productivity, water quality, and even climate regulation. To fully understand soil health, it is important to delve into its key components: physical, chemical, and biological aspects that all contribute to its overall condition and functionality.


Physical Components:
The physical properties of soil are foundational in determining its structure and ability to support plant life. These properties include texture, structure, porosity, and water-holding capacity. Soil texture refers to the size distribution of mineral particles within a soil sample-namely sand, silt, and clay. Each type of particle plays a crucial role; for example, sandy soils typically facilitate good drainage but poor nutrient retention, whereas clay soils retain water well but can be prone to compaction which reduces porosity.


Soil structure describes the way soil particles are grouped together into aggregates. A well-aggregated soil enhances aeration and water infiltration and reduces erosion risk. Porosity, closely linked with soil structure, measures the volume of pore spaces in soil which affects water and air storage capacity essential for root growth.


Chemical Components:
Chemical properties of soil include pH level, nutrient content (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and organic matter content. The pH of the soil influences nutrient availability; most nutrients are readily available to plants in slightly acidic to neutral soils. Nutrient balance is paramount because excessive or deficient levels can harm plant health.


Organic matter significantly impacts chemical properties by improving CEC-soil's ability to hold onto essential nutrients-and buffering against pH changes. Additionally, decomposition releases nutrients back into the soil making them accessible for plant uptake.


Biological Components:
Biological factors involve the living organisms that contribute to overall soil health through their activities within the ecosystem; these organisms range from microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi to larger earthworms and insects. Microbial activity is especially crucial as these organisms decompose organic matter releasing nutrients in forms accessible to plants while also promoting aggregate formation through their exudates.


Mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots facilitating improved water uptake as well as nutrient absorption particularly phosphorus enhancing plant growth under stress conditions or low fertility environments. Earthworms physically alter the structure by aerating the soil creating channels that enhance root penetration and surface runoff prevention contributing significantly towards increased porosity.


In conclusion understanding how these physical chemical biological components interact within a specific environment allows us better manage our land sustainably ensuring productive agricultural systems resilient ecosystems capable adapting global changes maintaining essential life-support functions provided by healthy soils.

Key Components of Soil: Overview of physical, chemical, and biological components that determine soil health.

Factors Influencing Soil Composition: Discussion on natural and human-induced factors like climate, farming practices, and pollution.

Soil, a dynamic and complex natural resource, serves as the foundation for terrestrial life. The health and composition of soil are pivotal to ecosystems, agriculture, and climate regulation. Understanding the factors influencing soil composition is crucial for managing its health and sustainability. These factors can be broadly classified into natural elements and human-induced activities.


Natural factors significantly influencing soil composition include climate, parent material, topography, organisms, and time-often encapsulated in the soil formation theory by Hans Jenny. Climate plays a pivotal role as temperature and precipitation patterns determine the rate of weathering of rocks (parent material) as well as organic matter decomposition. In regions with high rainfall, for instance, soils tend to be more leached and less fertile due to the removal of soluble substances such as calcium or potassium. Conversely, arid climates see slower organic matter turnover and can lead to salt accumulation, affecting soil fertility.


The nature of the parent material itself influences soil texture (clay, silt, or sand content), mineral composition, and ultimately fertility. For example, soils derived from volcanic ash are often very fertile due to their rich mineral content. Topography affects drainage patterns and erosion rates; steep slopes may lead to highly eroded soils with lower organic content whereas flat areas might have richer soils due to sediment deposition.


Biological factors including plants, animals, microorganisms contribute greatly through processes like nitrogen fixation by bacteria or nutrient cycling by decomposers. Over time these interactions enhance soil depth and quality.


However, human activities have become increasingly dominant forces impacting soil health. Agricultural practices such as plowing increase erosion risks while overuse of chemical fertilizers can lead to nutrient imbalances and contamination from heavy metals or persistent organic pollutants which degrade soil health further.


Deforestation for agriculture or urban development exposes topsoil to erosion by wind or water while reducing organic inputs into the soil ecosystem from vegetation cover. Similarly urbanization seals off large areas of land with impermeable surfaces thereby disrupting natural drainage systems leading increased runoff pollution into other areas.


Pollution-from industrial waste discharge agricultural runoff containing pesticides herbicides-is another critical threat altering both chemical physical properties soils at alarming rates potentially rendering them unproductive even toxic future generations flora fauna depend on healthy soils survival.


Given these challenges understanding managing impacts both natural human-induced crucial maintaining restoring healthy resilient soils across globe initiatives promote sustainable farming practices reduction chemical inputs conservation tillage reforestation crucial reversing degradation preserving vital earth resource generations come effectively stewarding our planet's requires balanced appreciation intricate interplay between inherent environmental characteristics direct indirect human interventions shape landscape beneath us.

Methods of Assessing Soil Health: Description of various techniques used to measure soil quality and composition, such as soil tests for pH, nutrient levels, and microbial activity.

Soil health is a pivotal aspect of environmental sustainability, agricultural productivity, and ecological balance. Assessing soil health involves a variety of techniques that provide crucial information about the soil's quality and composition. These methods not only help in understanding current soil conditions but also guide sustainable land management practices. Here, I will describe several key techniques used to measure different aspects of soil health.


One basic yet essential method of assessing soil health is testing the pH level. Soil pH, a measure of acidity or alkalinity, greatly affects plant growth and nutrient availability. A pH meter or litmus paper can be used to determine if the soil is acidic (pH less than 7), neutral (pH around 7), or alkaline (pH more than 7). Adjustments can then be made through amendments like lime for acidic soils or sulfur compounds for alkaline soils to maintain the optimal pH range for specific crops.


Nutrient levels in the soil are critical for healthy plant growth; hence, nutrient testing is another significant assessment method. This typically involves collecting soil samples and analyzing them for essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). Advanced laboratory tests might also check for secondary nutrients like calcium, magnesium, and trace elements which are vital in smaller quantities but no less important for overall plant health. These tests help farmers and gardeners apply the correct type and amount of fertilizers to maintain balanced nutrient levels without over-application that could lead to runoff issues or pollution.


Another sophisticated aspect of assessing soil health is evaluating microbial activity. The presence and diversity of soil microorganisms are indicators of a healthy soil ecosystem. Techniques such as microbial biomass carbon measurement, enzyme assays, or even DNA-based tools can assess the microbial community's size and activity levels. For example, a healthy soil will typically have various bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and other organisms working together to decompose organic matter into nutrients that plants can easily use.


Moreover, physical structure testing is often performed to check the texture, compaction, and water-holding capacity of the soil. Good structure supports adequate air flow and water drainage which are necessary for robust root development. Tests such as penetrometers can measure compaction levels while infiltration rates give insights into how well water percolates through the soil layers.


Advancements in technology have brought sophisticated techniques like spectroscopy and remote sensing into the realm of soil health assessments too. These tools provide detailed images that reflect conditions such as moisture content and organic matter variations across large areas with precision.


In summary, maintaining optimal soil health requires an integrated approach involving various assessment methods that monitor pH levels, nutrient contents, microbial activity among others parameters crucial in determining the vitality of our soils. By employing these diverse techniques regularly we ensure our understanding improves over time leading us towards more sustainable practices in agriculture thereby preserving this essential natural resource for future generations.

Methods of Assessing Soil Health: Description of various techniques used to measure soil quality and composition, such as soil tests for pH, nutrient levels, and microbial activity.

Impact of Poor Soil Health: Consequences on crop yield, plant health, and ecosystem balance.

The impact of poor soil health is a critical issue that resonates deeply within agriculture and environmental management. It encompasses a broad range of consequences that affect not just crop yield and plant health, but also the broader ecosystem balance. Understanding these impacts helps us appreciate the importance of maintaining healthy soil.


At the core, soil health refers to the capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. This is influenced by numerous factors including its biodiversity, organic matter content, structure, and chemical balance. When soil health is compromised, it triggers a domino effect on various ecological functions.


The first consequence of poor soil health is reduced crop yield. Healthy soil contains a rich mix of nutrients and microorganisms essential for plant growth. It has good structure and water-holding capacity which ensures that plants can access water and air efficiently. Conversely, degraded soils are often compacted or have imbalanced pH levels which limit root growth and reduce nutrient availability. This results in weaker plants with lower productivity.


Moreover, unhealthy soils directly impair plant health. Plants grown in such soils are more susceptible to diseases and pests because they lack the strength or nutrition to resist them effectively. Poor soil conditions stress plants physiologically making them less robust against pathogens like fungi or insect attacks.


Apart from affecting crops directly, poor soil health disrupts ecosystem balance - an often overlooked consequence. Soil acts as a carbon sink; its degradation releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere contributing to global warming. Additionally, unhealthy soils lose their ability to filter water leading to increased runoff and erosion. This not only results in loss of fertile topsoil but also affects water quality downstream affecting aquatic life and drinking water sources.


Furthermore, degraded soils diminish biodiversity both aboveground and belowground. The decreased structural diversity limits habitats for microorganisms important for nutrient cycling while also impacting larger animals which rely on healthy vegetation supported by robust soils.


In conclusion, poor soil health presents significant challenges not just economically through lowered crop yields but also environmentally through disrupted ecosystem balances. A holistic approach towards managing soil resources is crucial - one that incorporates sustainable farming practices like crop rotation, cover cropping, reduced tillage systems, and organic amendments aimed at preserving this precious resource while ensuring food security in an increasingly uncertain climatic future.

Stump Grinding Techniques Powder Springs, GA

Strategies for Improving Soil Health: Covering crop rotation, organic amendments, reduced tillage practices, and sustainable land management.

Soil health is a critical component of sustainable agriculture and has significant impacts on environmental quality, crop productivity, and biodiversity. Strategies to improve soil health are diverse, but key methods include crop rotation, organic amendments, reduced tillage practices, and sustainable land management. Each of these strategies plays a vital role in maintaining or enhancing the quality of soil, which in turn supports healthier agricultural systems.


Crop rotation is one of the oldest and most effective techniques for managing soil health. By alternating the types of crops grown on a particular piece of land, farmers can prevent the depletion of soil nutrients. Different crops have varying nutrient requirements and pest and disease profiles; thus, rotating them helps in breaking cycles of pests and diseases while promoting a balanced nutrient uptake from the soil. For example, rotating nitrogen-fixing legumes with cereals can naturally replenish nitrogen levels in the soil, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers.


Organic amendments such as compost, manure, and biochar are also critical to improving soil health. These materials increase soil organic matter content, which enhances soil structure, water retention capacity, and microbial activity. The addition of organic matter not only provides essential nutrients for plant growth but also stimulates biological activity that is crucial for nutrient cycling within the soil ecosystem. This makes soils more resilient to stresses like drought and heavy rainfall.


Reduced tillage practices are another cornerstone in the strategy to enhance soil integrity and function. Traditional tilling methods often disrupt soil structure, lead to erosion, and result in the loss of organic matter. In contrast, reduced tillage systems such as no-till or minimum-till limit disturbance to the soil's surface. This practice helps preserve microbial habitats and earthworm tunnels which are essential for aerating the soil and improving water infiltration. Furthermore, it reduces erosion rates significantly by leaving previous crop residues on fields which protects the topsoil from wind and water erosion.


Sustainable land management integrates many practices that contribute to maintaining healthy soils while meeting agricultural production goals with minimal adverse environmental impacts. This includes implementing buffer strips along waterways to trap sediment runoff; applying precise amounts of fertilizer based on detailed soil testing rather than blanket application rates; or adopting integrated pest management strategies that reduce reliance on chemical pesticides.


Together these strategies form an integrated approach towards managing soils in a way that sustains their health over time while supporting productive agricultural ecosystems. By embracing these practices farmers can ensure they produce food sustainably whilst contributing positively towards environmental conservation efforts - protecting both our current resources and those for future generations.

Strategies for Improving Soil Health: Covering crop rotation, organic amendments, reduced tillage practices, and sustainable land management.
Case Studies: Examples from different regions showing successful implementation of soil health improvement strategies.
Case Studies: Examples from different regions showing successful implementation of soil health improvement strategies.

Soil health is a critical component of sustainable agriculture, influencing everything from crop productivity to environmental resilience. Across different regions around the globe, innovative strategies have been deployed to improve soil composition and enhance its health. This essay explores a few case studies that showcase successful implementations of such strategies, reflecting the adaptability and potential benefits of tailored soil health interventions.


In the semi-arid tropics of India, farmers face challenges like soil erosion and nutrient depletion. A notable project implemented in Andhra Pradesh involves the use of soil moisture conservation techniques combined with organic farming practices. Farmers are encouraged to use cover crops, mulching, and zero-tillage methods which help in retaining soil moisture and reducing erosion. Additionally, incorporating farmyard manure and compost enriches soil fertility by replenishing organic carbon—a crucial element for nutrient absorption in plants. This approach not only improved crop yields but also enhanced the water retention capacity of soils, proving vital in drought-prone areas.


Moving over to the American Midwest, where industrial-scale agriculture often leads to significant soil degradation through overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides; here, an alternative approach has gained traction. The strategy focuses on integrated pest management (IPM) and precision farming techniques. IPM reduces reliance on chemical inputs by using biological pest controls and crop rotations to break pest cycles naturally. Precision farming utilizes advanced technologies like GPS mapping and AI-driven decision tools to apply inputs (water, fertilizers) more efficiently based on the specific needs of each plot of land. These methods have shown success by reducing runoff, improving soil structure, and increasing biodiversity within the ecosystem.


Another inspiring example comes from Kenya’s Taita Hills, where deforestation had led to severe degradation of fertile lands. Local communities began adopting agroforestry practices by integrating tree planting with crop cultivation. Trees such as nitrogen-fixing species were introduced into farms which helped in restoring soil fertility while providing additional benefits like wood fuel and fruits for consumption or sale. Agroforestry has not only contributed to better yield but also mitigated climate change impacts through increased carbon sequestration.


Lastly, in southern Brazil’s Paraná state, no-till farming has revolutionized traditional agricultural practices that often resulted in massive soil loss due to erosion after heavy rains. By avoiding plowing before sowing new crops (hence no-till), this method minimizes disturbance to soil structure while keeping previous crop residues on the field surface which protects against erosion. Over time this practice builds up organic matter content in soils making them healthier and more resilient against both droughts and excessive rainfall.


From India's organic interventions to Brazil's no-till revolution—these cases provide just a snapshot into diverse practices being adapted around the world towards restoring degraded soils back into life-giving foundations essential for our continued sustenance on this planet.

An arborist practicing tree care: using a chainsaw to fell a eucalyptus tree in a park at Kallista, Victoria.

Arboriculture (/ˈɑːrbərɪˌkʌltʃər, ɑːrˈbɔːr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.

Overview

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A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]

Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]

Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]

Tree Benefits

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Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.

Environmental Benefits

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  • Erosion control and soil retention
  • Improved water infiltration and percolation
  • Protection from exposure: windbreak, shade, impact from hail/rainfall
  • Air humidification
  • Modulates environmental conditions in a given microclimate: shields wind, humidifies, provides shade
  • Carbon sequestration and oxygen production

Ecological Benefits

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  • Attracting pollinators
  • Increased biodiversity
  • Food for decomposers, consumers, and pollinators
  • Soil health: organic matter accumulation from leaf litter and root exudates (symbiotic microbes)
  • Ecological habitat

Socioeconomic Benefits

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  • Increases employment: forestry, education, tourism
  • Run-off and flood control (e.g. bioswales, plantings on slopes)
  • Aesthetic beauty: parks, gatherings, social events, tourism, senses (fragrance, visual), focal point
  • Adds character and prestige to the landscape, creating a "natural" feel
  • Climate control (e.g shade): can reduce energy consumption of buildings
  • Privacy and protection: from noise, wind
  • Cultural benefits: eg. memorials for a loved one
  • Medical benefits: eg. Taxus chemotherapy
  • Materials: wood for building, paper pulp
  • Fodder for livestock
  • Property value: trees can increase by 10–20%[citation needed]
  • Increases the amount of time customers will spend in a mall, strip mall, shopping district[citation needed]

Tree Defects

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A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.

Common types of tree defects:

Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.

  • common with decurrent growth habits
  • occurs in excurrent trees only after the leader is killed and multiple leaders compete for dominance

Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment

  • occurs in branch unions with a high attachment angle (i.e. v-shaped unions)
  • common in many columnar/fastigiate growing deciduous trees

Dead, diseased, or broken branches:

  • woundwood cannot grow over stubs or dead branches to seal off decay
  • symptoms/signs of disease: e.g. oozing through the bark, sunken areas in the bark, and bark with abnormal patterns or colours, stunted new growth, discolouration of the foliage

Cracks

  • longitudinal cracks result from interior decay, bark rips/tears, or torsion from wind load
  • transverse cracks result from buckled wood, often caused by unnatural loading on branches, such as lion's tailing.
  • Seams: bark edges meet at a crack or wound
  • Ribs: bulges, indicating interior cracks

Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.

Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure

Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots

Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning

Roots:

  • girdling roots compress the trunk, leading to poor trunk taper, and restrict vascular flow
  • kinked roots provide poor structural support; the kink is a site of potential root failure
  • circling roots occurs when roots encounter obstructions/limitations such as a small tree well or being grown too long in a nursery pot; these cannot provide adequate structural support and are limited in accessing nutrients and water
  • healthy soil texture and depth, drainage, water availability, makes for healthy roots

Tree Installation

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Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.

Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.

Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.

Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:

  • Silva cells: suspended pavement over modular cells containing soil for root development
  • Structural soils: growing medium composed of 80% crushed rock and 20% loam, which supports surface load without it leading to soil compaction

Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:

Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk

Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots

Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.

Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.

UK

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Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.

The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.

Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.

Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.

The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "arboriculture". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  2. ^ "Amenity landscapes • Environment Guide". www.environmentguide.org.nz. Retrieved 2020-04-28.
  3. ^ "Town and Country Planning Association". Town and Country Planning Association. Retrieved 2020-04-28.
  • Harris, Richard W. (1983). Arboriculture: Care of Trees, Shrubs, and Vines in the Landscape. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. pp. 2–3. ISBN 0-13-043935-5.
  • "arboriculture". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. Merriam-Webster.
  • "arboriculture". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007.
  • "arboriculture". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Online. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000.
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Lithia Springs may refer to:

A Timberjack wheeled harvester stacking cut timber in Finland

Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]

Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.

All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]

Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]

Science

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Forestry as a science

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Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]

Silvology

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Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]

Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.

Dendrology

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Leaf shape is a common method used to identify trees.

Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δένδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξύλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.

In the past, dendrology included the study of the natural history of woody species in specific regions, but this aspect is now considered part of ecology. The field also plays a role in conserving rare or endangered species.[15]

Genetic diversity in forestry

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The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.

The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]

Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]

Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.

About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]

Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]

Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]

Forest management

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Sustainable forest management balances local socioeconomic, cultural, and ecological needs and constraints.

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.

Many tools like remote sensing, GIS and photogrammetry[20][21] modelling have been developed to improve forest inventory and management planning.[22] Scientific research plays a crucial role in helping forest management. For example, climate modeling,[23][24][25] biodiversity research,[26][27] carbon sequestration research,[24][28][29] GIS applications,[30][31] and long-term monitoring[25][32] help assess and improve forest management, ensuring its effectiveness and success.

Urban forestry

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Tree pruning in Durham, North Carolina
Professional Tree Climber (arborist: Zack Weiler) climbing a willow tree in Port Elgin, ON. Canada
James Kinder, an ISA Certified Municipal Arborist examining a Japanese Hemlock at Hoyt Arboretum
Urban forestry is the care and management of single trees and tree populations in urban settings for the purpose of improving the urban environment. Urban forestry involves both planning and management, including the programming of care and maintenance operations of the urban forest.[33] Urban forestry advocates the role of trees as a critical part of the urban infrastructure. Urban foresters plant and maintain trees, support appropriate tree and forest preservation, conduct research and promote the many benefits trees provide. Urban forestry is practiced by municipal and commercial arborists, municipal and utility foresters, environmental policymakers, city planners, consultants, educators, researchers and community activists.

Forestry education

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History of forestry education

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The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.

In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.

The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.

Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.

In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]

Forestry education today

[edit]
Prescribed burning is used by foresters to reduce fuel loads.

Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]

In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.

In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]

In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]

In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.

The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]

Continuing education

[edit]

In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.

These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems

History

[edit]

Society and culture

[edit]

Literature

[edit]
The first book edition of Sylva

Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.

The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]

Noted silvologists

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See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ "SAFnet Dictionary | Definition For [forestry]". Dictionaryofforestry.org. 2008-10-22. Archived from the original on 2013-10-19. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
  2. ^ "Seed Origin -pinga Forestry Focus". Forestry Focus. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  3. ^ Young, Raymond A. (1982). Introduction to Forest Science. John Wiley & Sons. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-471-06438-1.
  4. ^ Frouz, Jan; Frouzová, Jaroslava (2022). Applied Ecology. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83225-4. ISBN 978-3-030-83224-7. S2CID 245009867.
  5. ^ "ecosystem part of biosphere". Tutorvista.com. Archived from the original on 2013-11-11. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
  6. ^ a b c d e The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief. Rome: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN 978-92-5-132707-4. S2CID 241416114.
  7. ^ "How does the forest industry contribute to the economy?". www.nrcan.gc.ca. 26 August 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
  8. ^ Bundeswaldinventur 2002 Archived 2014-10-06 at the Wayback Machine, Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV), retrieved, 17 January 2010
  9. ^ Unternehmen Wald, forests as an enterprise, German private forestry association website Archived 2016-09-18 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 356p.
  11. ^ Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Undoing the Damage: Silviculture for Ecologists and Environmental Scientists. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 313p.
  12. ^ Fishes and forestry : worldwide watershed interactions and management. Northcote, T. G., Hartman, G. F. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science. 2004. ISBN 978-0-470-99524-2. OCLC 184983506.cite book: CS1 maint: others (link)
  13. ^ Hemery, G.; Skovsgaard, J. P. (April 2018). "Silvology: Redefining the Biological Science for the Study of Forests". Quarterly Journal of Forestry. 112 (2): 128–31.
  14. ^ Oldeman, R. A. A. (1990). Forests: elements of silvology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 624. ISBN 0-387-51883-5.
  15. ^ a b "Dendrology | Definition & Description | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
  16. ^ a b c de Vries, S.M.G., Alan, M., Bozzano, M., Burianek, V., Collin, E., Cottrell, J., Ivankovic, M., Kelleher, C.T., Koskela, J., Rotach, P., Vietto, L. and Yrjänä, L. (2015). "Pan-European strategy for genetic conservation of forest trees and establishment of a core network of dynamic conservation units" (PDF). European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy.: xii + 40 p. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-31. Retrieved 2017-01-20.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ a b Konnert, M., Fady, B., Gömöry, D., A’Hara, S., Wolter, F., Ducci, F., Koskela, J., Bozzano, M., Maaten, T. and Kowalczyk, J. (2015). "Use and transfer of forest reproductive material in Europe in the context of climate change" (PDF). European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy.: xvi and 75 p. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-04. Retrieved 2017-01-20.cite journal: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings. Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN 978-92-5-132581-0. S2CID 130116768.
  19. ^ "Glossary of Forestry Terms in British Columbia" (PDF). Ministry of Forests and Range (Canada). March 2008. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
  20. ^ "I. Balenovich, A. Seletkovich, et al. Comparison of Classical Terrestrial and Photogrammetric Method in Creating Management Division. FORMEC. Croatia 2012. pp. 1-13".
  21. ^ "I. Balenović, D. Vuletić, et al. Digital Photogrammetry – State of the Art and Potential for Application in Forest Management in Croatia. SEEFOR. South-East European Forestry. #2, 2011. pp. 81–93" (PDF).
  22. ^ Mozgeris, Gintautas (May 30, 2009). "The continuous field view of representing forest geographically: from cartographic representation towards improved management planning". S.A.P.I.EN.S. 2 (2) – via journals.openedition.org.
  23. ^ Anderegg, William R. L.; Wu, Chao; Acil, Nezha; Carvalhais, Nuno; Pugh, Thomas A. M.; Sadler, Jon P.; Seidl, Rupert (2 September 2022). "A climate risk analysis of Earth's forests in the 21st century" (PDF). Science. 377 (6610): 1099–1103. Bibcode:2022Sci...377.1099A. doi:10.1126/science.abp9723. PMID 36048937. S2CID 252010508.
  24. ^ a b Windisch, Michael G.; Davin, Edouard L.; Seneviratne, Sonia I. (October 2021). "Prioritizing forestation based on biogeochemical and local biogeophysical impacts". Nature Climate Change. 11 (10): 867–871. Bibcode:2021NatCC..11..867W. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01161-z. S2CID 237947801. ProQuest 2578272675.
  25. ^ a b Benedek, Zsófia; FertÅ‘, Imre (2013). "Development and application of a new Forestation Index: global forestation patterns and drivers" (Document). IEHAS Discussion Papers. hdl:10419/108304. ProQuest 1698449297.
  26. ^ Zhang, Mingfang; Wei, Xiaohua (5 March 2021). "Deforestation, forestation, and water supply". Science. 371 (6533): 990–991. Bibcode:2021Sci...371..990Z. doi:10.1126/science.abe7821. PMID 33674479. S2CID 232124649.
  27. ^ Prevedello, Jayme A.; Winck, Gisele R.; Weber, Marcelo M.; Nichols, Elizabeth; Sinervo, Barry (20 March 2019). "Impacts of forestation and deforestation on local temperature across the globe". PLOS ONE. 14 (3): e0213368. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1413368P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0213368. PMC 6426338. PMID 30893352. Gale A579457448.
  28. ^ Anderegg, William R. L.; Wu, Chao; Acil, Nezha; Carvalhais, Nuno; Pugh, Thomas A. M.; Sadler, Jon P.; Seidl, Rupert (2 September 2022). "A climate risk analysis of Earth's forests in the 21st century" (PDF). Science. 377 (6610): 1099–1103. Bibcode:2022Sci...377.1099A. doi:10.1126/science.abp9723. PMID 36048937. S2CID 252010508.
  29. ^ Portmann, Raphael; Beyerle, Urs; Davin, Edouard; Fischer, Erich M.; De Hertog, Steven; Schemm, Sebastian (4 October 2022). "Global forestation and deforestation affect remote climate via adjusted atmosphere and ocean circulation". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 5569. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.5569P. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33279-9. PMC 9532392. PMID 36195588.
  30. ^ Zhang, Mingfang; Wei, Xiaohua (5 March 2021). "Deforestation, forestation, and water supply". Science. 371 (6533): 990–991. Bibcode:2021Sci...371..990Z. doi:10.1126/science.abe7821. PMID 33674479. S2CID 232124649.
  31. ^ AbdulBaqi, Faten Khalid (June 2022). "The effect of afforestation and green roofs techniques on thermal reduction in Duhok city". Trees, Forests and People. 8: 100267. Bibcode:2022TFP.....800267A. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100267. S2CID 248646593.
  32. ^ Prevedello, Jayme A.; Winck, Gisele R.; Weber, Marcelo M.; Nichols, Elizabeth; Sinervo, Barry (20 March 2019). "Impacts of forestation and deforestation on local temperature across the globe". PLOS ONE. 14 (3): e0213368. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1413368P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0213368. PMC 6426338. PMID 30893352. Gale A579457448.
  33. ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 695. ISBN 978-0415862875.
  34. ^ "News of the world". Unasylva. 23 (3). FAO. 1969. Archived from the original on 2010-04-27. Retrieved 2010-10-12.
  35. ^ Sample, V. A.; Bixler, R. P.; McDonough, M. H.; Bullard, S. H.; Snieckus, M. M. (July 16, 2015). "The Promise and Performance of Forestry Education in the United States: Results of a Survey of Forestry Employers, Graduates, and Educators". Journal of Forestry. 113 (6): 528–537. doi:10.5849/jof.14-122.
  36. ^ "SAF Accredited and Candidate Forestry Degree Programs" (PDF) (Press release). Society of American Foresters. 2008-05-19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-26. The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
  37. ^ "Canadian Institute of Forestry - Silver Ring Program". Cif-ifc.org. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
  38. ^ "Discover IUFRO:The Organization". IUFRO. Archived from the original on 2010-07-08. Retrieved 2010-10-12.
  39. ^ N.D.G. James (1996), "A History of Forestry and Monographic Forestry Literature in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom", The Literature of Forestry and Agroforestry, Cornell University Press, pp. 34–35, ISBN 9780801431814

Sources

[edit]

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.

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